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KEY TRENDS 

• A 1-metre rise in sea level would displace about 7 million people in India*
• Fossil fuel burning has contributed to most of the greenhouse gas emissions in the past 20 years*
• Global GHG emissions due to human activities have grown since pre-industrial times, with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004**
• The largest growth in GHG emissions between 1970 and 2004 has come from energy supply, transport and industry, while residential and commercial buildings, forestry (including deforestation) and agriculture sectors have been growing at a lower rate**
• India would face yield losses in rice and wheat along with fall in the rate of growth of gross domestic product owing to climate change***
• Increased occurrence of extreme events (such as cyclones) due to climate change will mostly affect the poor***

* Ministry of Environment, Government of India
** Climate Change (2007): Synthesis Report brought out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
*** Parikh, Kirit and Parikh, Jyoti (2002): Climate Change-India’s Perceptions, Positions, Policies and Possibilities, OECD
 

**page**

The graph below shows the share of different sectors (Industry, Agriculture, Forestry etc.) in total GHG (green house gas) emissions in 2004 in terms of CO2-eq*. (Forestry includes deforestation). Global GHG emissions due to human activities have grown since pre-industrial times, with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004

Source: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report brought out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Note: * CO2-equivalent emission is the amount of CO2 emission that would cause the same time-integrated radiative forcing, over a given time horizon, as an emitted amount of a long-lived GHG or a mixture of GHGs. The equivalent CO2 is obtained by multiplying the emission of a GHG by its Global Warming Potential (GWP) for the given time horizon.

Share in global CO2 emissions (%) United States versus rest of the world

Source: International Energy Outlook 2005, US Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration of Government of United States of America, 2005.

http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/comp_env_2008-09.pdf: 

• India is one of the 12 megabiodiversity countries of the world. From about 70% of the total geographical area surveyed so far, 46,000 plant species and 81,000 animal species representing about 7% of the world’s flora and 6.5% of the world's fauna, respectively, have been described. Out of the total twelve biodiversity hot spots in the world, India has two; one is the north east region and other the western ghats.

• As per the latest State of Forest Report 2009, the forest cover in the country is 690,889 km sq. and constitutes 21.02 percent of its geographic area. There is a increase of 728 km sq in forest cover in year 2007 as compared to revised assessment made in 2005. The total tree cover of the country has been estimated as 92,769 km sq. or about 2.82 percent of the country’s geographic area.

• More than 60 percent of Indian households depend on traditional sources of energy like fuel wood, dung and crop residue for meeting their cooking and heating needs. Out of total rural energy consumption about 65 per cent is met from fuel wood. Fuel wood consumption during 2001-02 is estimated at 223 million tones, 180 millions tones of which is for household consumption and the balance for cottage industry, big hotels etc. Burning of traditional fuels introduces large quantities of CO2 when the combustion is complete, but if there is incomplete combustion and oxidation then Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced, in addition to hydrocarbons.

• About 24 mha are occupied by the housing, the industry and for other non-agricultural uses, 19.2 mha are snowbound and remote, leaving only 263 million hectare for agriculture, forestry, pasture and other biomass production. Since 1970-71, the net area sown has remained almost the same at around 141 mha levels.

• Average annual precipitation is nearly 4000 cubic km. and the average flow in the river system is estimated to be 1880 cubic km. Because of concentration of rains only in the three monsoon months, the utilizable quantum of water is about 690 cubic km.

• A total of 42.6 million people living in 8.2 million households have been enumerated in slums of 640 cities/towns spread across 26 states and union territories in 2001 census. The slum population constitutes 4 percent of the total population of the country. The slum dwellers in the country constitute nearly a seventh of the total urban population of the states and union territories reporting slum population and 23.1 percent of the population of the 640 cities/towns reporting slums.

• Cities with population above 100,000 accounts for 60 percent of country’s population in 2001. About 17.7 million population lives in the citites with population above one million, which is 41.6 percent of the total slum population in the country. In absolute numbers, Greater Mumbai has the highest slum population of around 6.5 million followed by Delhi 1.9 million and Kolkata 1.5 million. The slum areas of Surat, Hyderabad, Chennai and Nagpur have more than half a million population each.

According to the Report of the Committee to Evolve Road Map on Management of Wastes in India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, March, 2010, http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Roadmap-Mgmt-Waste.pdf:

• Waste management differs for different types of wastes and for wastes in different geographical locations such as urban, rural and hilly areas. While the management of non-hazardous domestic waste is the joint responsibility of the citizens and the local government, the management of commercial, industrial and hazardous waste is the responsibility of the waste generators like commercial establishments, healthcare establishments, industries and the pollution control boards.

• As per 2008 statistics, it is estimated that in India we need to manage 0.573 million metric tons (MMT) of municipal solid waste per day of which about 60% is organic waste amounting to 0.292 MMT/d. There are only 110 facilities in the country for treating hardly 50% of the organic waste generated.

• In the present practice of mixed collection and transportation throughout the country, collection efficiency is only around 60% and the rest 40% lies uncollected and scattered all over our towns and cities, polluting the surrounding land and water resources. This also leads to proliferation of rodents and vectors spreading diseases and air pollution from dust and smoke when burnt in the open.

• About 24 landfill facilities, jointly having the capacity of holding 0.06 MMT/d have been constructed in the country for landfilling against a total requirement for landfilling of about 0.183 MMT/d of inert wastes.

• The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) assessed Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) generation in the country to be 1,00,000 Metric Tons or 0.1 million metric tonnes per day (MMT/d) in the year 2001-02. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) made a survey of 59 cities in India during the year 2004-05 to assess the existing status of MSW management which included 35 metro cities and 24 State capitals. Based on this study and on census data of 2008, the MSW generation in the country has been estimated to be 0.573 (MMT/d) in the year 2008.

• The average collection efficiency of municipal solid waste ranges from 22% to 60%. The highest per capita waste generation was in the city of Kochi (0.67 kg/capita/day) and the lowest was (0.17-0.19 kg/c/day) in Kohima, Imphal and Nashik.

• The waste characterization showed that municipal solid wastes typically contains 51 % of organic waste, 17% recyclables, 11% hazardous and 21% inert. However, about 40% of all MSW is not collected at all and hence lies littered in the city/town and finds its way to nearby drains and water bodies, causing choking of drains and pollution of surface water.

• There are 86 mechanized compost plants, 20 Vermi-compost plants, 2 refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) plants, and two with energy recovery system established so far in India. Also Sanitary Landfill Facilities (SLF) have been constructed in the country for scientific disposal of MSW, many of which are in operation.

• Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules are not being effectively implemented in most of the local bodies i.e. in about 4377 municipalities and municipal corporations spread throughout the country.

• The plastic consumption in India, as per estimate in 2008 by CPCB was 8 MT/annum, out of which about 5.7 MT of plastics are converted into waste annually i.e. 15,722 tons of plastic waste is generated per day. Therefore the per capita generation of plastic waste has been estimated as 5.7 Kg/annum.

• The figures available on plastic waste are estimated on the assumption that 70% of the total plastic consumed is transformed into waste. It has been reported that 60% of total plastic waste generated is recycled and 40% is littered and remains uncollected. Therefore, approximately, 6289 tons per day (TPD) i.e. 40% of plastics are neither collected,nor recycled and find their way into drains, open lands, rivers, railway tracks and coasts. These in turn, choke drains or get dredged in the soil, making the land infertile.

• Thermoplastics, which include Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC), High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS) etc, constitute 80% of the total plastics.

• In terms of types of plastics, almost 90% of the plastic types are recyclable and only 10% of the various types of waste are non-recyclable.

• It is estimated that the construction industry in India generates about 10-12 million tons of waste annually.

• Approximately 288.20 tons per day (56.87%) out of 506.74 tons per day wastes generated is being treated either through Common Bio-medical Waste Treatment Facilities (159 in number), or captive treatment facilities. There are 602 Bio-medical Waste Incinerators (which include both common and captive incinerators), 2218 autoclaves, 192 microwaves, 151 hydroclaves and 8,038 shredders in the country. About 424 (70.4%) out of 602 incinerators are provided with air pollution control devices and 178 (29.6 %) incinerators are in operation without air pollution control devices.

• The E-waste inventory based on the obsolescence rate in India for the year 2005 has been estimated to be 1,46, 000 tonnes, which is expected to exceed 8,00,000 tonnes by 2012.

• There are about 36,000 hazardous waste generating industries in India which generate 6.2 million tonnes out of which land fillable hazardous waste is about 2.7 million tonnes (44%), incinerable hazardous waste is about 0.4 million tonnes (7 %) and recyclable hazardous waste is about 3.1 million tonnes (49 %). Indiscriminate and unscientific disposal of wastes in the past has resulted in several sites in the country to become environmentally degraded.

• There are 141 hazardous waste dumpsites that have been primarily identified in 14 States/UTs out of which 88 critically polluted locations are currently identified. Gujarat (about 29%), Maharashtra (about 25%) and Andhra Pradesh (about 9%) are the top three HW generating States. Thereafter, Chhattisgarh (about 5%), Rajasthan, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu (about 4 %) are found to be major generators of HW. These seven States together, are generating about 80 % of country's total HW. About 64 Common Hazardous Waste Transportation, Storage and Disposal Sites (TSDFs) have been identified in various States/UTs out of which 35 sites have been notified.

According to the report The State of World Population 2009 (UNFPA): Facing a changing world: Women, population and climate,

http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2009/en/pdf/EN_SOWP09.pdf:

• The temperature increase since the late 1800s may seem small—0.74 degrees Celsius—but the impact on people is likely to be profound. The impact will be even greater as temperatures continue rising, by as much as 6.4 degrees Celsius by 2100.

• Rice-growing, livestock-raising, and burning organic wastes have more than doubled methane concentrations. The use of artificial fertilizers, made possible by techniques developed in the early 20th century, has released large amounts of another greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide, into air and water.

• Since 2000, “anthropogenic” or human-caused carbon-dioxide emissions have been increasing four times faster than in the previous decade. Most of the emissions came from burning fossil fuels.

• The World Health Organization estimates that in 2000 some 150,000 excess deaths were occurring annually—in extreme heat waves, storms, or similar events—as a result of climate change that had occurred since the 1970s.

• The additional greenhouse gases that come from intense burning of fossil fuels, modern farming methods that rely on fertilizers, and the industrial use of chlorofluorocarbons, particularly in the past 40 years, have thrown the earth’s natural greenhouse effect into a state of disequilibrium. In addition, deforestation, clearing of other vegetation and the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the oceans have reduced the capacity of the world’s “carbon sinks,” which have for millennia absorbed excess carbon from the atmosphere. Less capacity to absorb carbon means there is more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, exacerbating what now appears to be a runaway greenhouse effect.

• The ten warmest years between 1880 and 2008 are: 1997, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008.

• Developing countries will account for the majority of the growth in total volume of carbon-dioxide emissions related to fossil fuels from 2008 through 2030.

• Emissions to be lower in 2030 than today only in Europe and Japan, where population is now approaching or already in decline

• Global emissions of black carbon are rising fast, and Chinese emissions may have doubled since 2000.

• From 1850 to 2002, countries we now call developed accounted for an estimated 76 per cent of cumulative carbon-dioxide emissions from fossil-fuel combustion, while the countries we now call developing accounted for an estimated 24 per cent. 

• Boosted by growing populations and rising affluence, the sum total of all developing countries’ emissions began exceeding the totals of all those of developed countries in 2005 and now make up 54 per cent of the total.

• In 2007, China is believed to have overtaken the United States in total carbon-dioxide emissions resulting from fossil-fuel combustion.

Some of the climate change risks according to the report The State of World Population 2009 (UNFPA) are:

• The average global temperature could rise by as much as 6.4 degrees Celsius by the end of this century.24

• As much as 30 per cent of plant and animal species could become extinct if the global temperature increase exceeds 2.5 degrees Celsius.

• One-third of the reef-building corals around the world could become extinct because of warming and acidifying waters.

• Global average sea levels could rise by as much as 43 centimetres by the end of this century.

• Arctic ice could disappear altogether during the summer by the second half of this century.

• One in six countries could face food shortages each year because of severe droughts.

• By 2075, between 3 billion and 7 billion people could face chronic water shortages.

**page** 

According to the State of Environment Report India 2009,

 http://hindi.indiawaterportal.org/sites/hindi.indiawaterportal.org/files/StateofEnvironmentReport2009.pdf: 

• In India, an estimated 146.82 Mha. area suffers from various forms of land degradation due to water and wind erosion and other complex problems like alkalinity/ salinity and soil acidity due to water logging. The varying degrees and types of degradation, stem mainly from unstable use and inappropriate land management practices. Loss of vegetation occurs as a result of deforestation, cutting beyond the silviculturally permissible limits, unsustainable fuel-wood and fodder extraction, shifting cultivation, encroachment into forest lands, forest fires and over-grazing, all of which subject the land to degradational forces. Other important factors responsible for large-scale degradation are the extension of cultivation to lands of low potential or high natural hazards, non-adoption of adequate soil conservation measures, improper crop rotation, indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides, improper planning and management of irrigation systems and extraction of groundwater in excess of the recharge capacity.

• Over the past fifty years, while India's total population increased by about three times, the total area of land under cultivation increased by only 20.2 per cent (from 118.75 Mha. In 1951 to 141.89 Mha. in 2005-06). Most of this expansion has taken place at the expense of forest and grazing land. Despite fast expansion of the area under cultivation, less agricultural land is available on per capita basis.

• The current practice of shifting cultivation in the eastern and north-eastern regions of India is an extravagant and unscientific form of land use. According to a recent estimate, an area of 18765.86 sq. km. (0.59 percent of the total geographical area) is under shifting cultivation. The effects of shifting cultivation are devastating and far-reaching in degrading the environment and ecology of these regions. The earlier 15–20 years cycle of shifting cultivation on a particular land has reduced to two or three years now. This has resulted in large-scale deforestation, soil and nutrient loss, and invasion by weeds and other species. The indigenous biodiversity has been affected to a large extent. As per the statistics, Orissa accounts for the largest area under shifting cultivation in India.

• Per hectare consumption of fertilizers has increased from 69.8 kg in 1991-92 to 113.3 kg in 2006-07, at an average rate of 3.3 per cent. There is excessive use of urea and a bias against micronutrients. As against the desirable NPK proportion of 4:2:1, the average use of urea now is 6:2 and 4:1. The Steering Committee of the Planning Commission has observed that “because nitrogenous fertilizers are subsidised more than potassic and phosphatic fertilizers, the subsidy tends to benefit the crops and regions which require higher use of nitrogenous fertilizers as compared to crops and regions which require higher application of P and K.” The excessive use of urea has also affected the soil profile adversely

• The total tree cover of the country has been estimated as 91,663 sq. km. or about 2.79 per cent of the country's geographical area. Between 2003 and 2005, the total forest cover had decreased slightly by 728 sq. km. The states, which have shown a decline in the forest covers, are Nagaland (296 sq. km), Manipur (173 sq. km), Madhya Pradesh (132 sq. km) and Chhattisgarh (129 sq. km). There has been a significant loss of forest cover in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (178 sq. km) because of the Tsunami. 

• The total forest cover of the country, as per the 2005 assessment, is 677,088 sq. km. which constitutes 20.60 per cent of the geographic area of the country. 

• Burning of wheat and rice straw and other agricultural residue has also contributed to loss of soil fertility, apart from causing air pollution. Open field burning of straw after combine harvesting is a common practice in states like Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh in order to ensure early preparation of fields for the next crop. Punjab alone produces around 23 million tonnes of rice straw and 17 million tonnes of wheat straw, annually. This straw is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. However, instead of recycling it back into the soil by mulching, it is burnt in the fields. This raises the temperature of the soil in the top three inches to such a high degree that the carbon: nitrogen equilibrium in soil changes rapidly. The carbon as CO is lost to the atmosphere, while nitrogen is converted into a nitrate. This leads to a loss of about 0.824 million tonnes of NPK from the soil. This is about 50 per cent of the total fertilizer consumption in the state.

• Excessive soil erosion with consequent high rate of sedimentation in the reservoirs and decreased fertility has created serious environmental problems with disastrous economic consequences. In India, the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Kosi rivers carry huge amounts of eroded soil in the form of heavy silt, which deposits as sediments on the river bed. While soil erosion by rain and river in hilli areas causes landslides and floods, deforestation, overgrazing, traditional agricultural practices, mining and incorrect siting of development projects in forested areas have resulted in exposing the green cover to severe soil erosion. Ravines and gullies account for 4 Mha. of land erosion. 

• In India, erosion rates range from 5 to 20 tonnes per hectare, sometimes going up to 100 tonnes per hectare. Nearly 93.68 million hectares are affected by water erosion and another 9.48 million hectares are affected by wind erosion annually in India. Thus, erosion leads to impoverished soil on one hand, and silting up of reservoirs and water tanks on the other.

• In India, 228.3 Mha. of geographical area comprises arid (50.8 Mha.), semi-arid (123.4 Mha.) and dry sub-humid regions (54.1 Mha.). Western parts of Rajasthan and Kutch are chronically drought affected.

• Total vehicle population of India is more than 85 million (about 1 percent share of the world). The increase in vehicles, as well as the presence of other motorized forms of transportation (taxis, autos, trains, buses, etc.), will contribute to the already existent large amount of vehicular emissions. The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as the vehicular emissions are emitted at near-ground level.

• Air borne emissions emitted from various industries are a cause of major concern. These emissions are of two forms, viz. solid particles (SPM) and gaseous emissions (SO2, NO2, CO, etc.).

• The power sector is a major consumer of coal, using about 78 per cent of the country's coal production. Coal-fired thermal units account for around 62.2 per cent of total power generation in the country. India's heavy reliance on coal explains the country's relatively high carbon intensity level. Coal production through opencast mining, its supply to and consumption in power stations, and industrial boilers leads to particulate and gaseous pollution.

• In 2006-07, India had encountered 495.54 million tonne/ year of total absolute emissions of CO2 from the power sector. However, the contribution of India to the cumulative global CO2 emissions is only 5 per cent. Thus historically, and at present, India's share in the carbon stock in the atmosphere is relatively very small when compared to its population.

• The household sector is the second largest consumer of energy in India after the industrial sector. National Family Health Survey-3 (NFHS-3) found that 71 per cent of India's households use solid fuels for cooking and that 91 per cent of rural households also do the same. According to National Family Health Survey-3, more than 60 per cent of Indian households depend on traditional sources of energy like fuel-wood, dung and crop residue for meeting their cooking and heating needs. Burning of traditional fuels introduces large quantities of CO2 in the atmosphere, when the combustion is complete, but if there is an incomplete combustion followed by oxidation, then CO is produced, in addition to hydrocarbons.

• There is a great deal of variation in the prevalence of TB according to the type of cooking fuel the household uses. It ranges from a low of 217 per 100,000 residents, (among households using electricity, liquid petroleum gas, natural gas, or biogas), to a high of 924 per 100,000 (among households using straw, shrubs, or grass for cooking). High TB prevalence is also seen amongst households using agricultural crop residue (703/100,000) or other fuels (755/100,000).

• Agriculture remains central to the Indian economy and therefore, receives the greatest share of the annual water allocation. According to the World Resources Institute (2000), 92 per cent of India's utilizable water is devoted to this sector, mostly in the form of irrigation. 

• In 1995, the Central Pollution Control Board identified severely polluted stretches on 18 major rivers in India (World Bank 1999). Not surprisingly, the majority of these stretches were found in and around large urban areas.

• The geogenic contaminants, including salinity, iron, fluoride and arsenic have affected groundwater in over 200 districts spread across 19 states. Studies have shown that long-term intake of fluoride can cause tooth decay and crippled bones. Arsenic can cause skin cancer and skin pigmentation.

• Water pollution is a serious problem in India as almost 70 per cent of its surface water resources and a growing percentage of its groundwater reserves are contaminated by biological, toxic, organic and inorganic pollutants. 

• Studies on the Ganga River indicate the presence of chemicals such as HCH, DDT, endosulfan, methyl malathion, malathion, dimethoate, and ethion in levels greater than those recommended by the international standards

• High levels of fertilizer use has been associated with increased incidence of eutrophication in rivers and lakes in several of India's most important water bodies, such as the Hussein Sagar in Hyderabad and Nainital in Uttar Pradesh.

• The Central and State Pollution Control Boards have identified 1,532 'grossly polluting' industries in India, although almost none of the industries comply with the emission standards (World Bank 1999).

• The domestic sector is responsible for the majority of wastewater generation in India. Combined, the 22 largest cities in the country produce over 7,267 million litres of domestic wastewater per day, of which slightly over 80 per cent is collected for treatment (CSE 1999)

• Annual production of solid waste in India has been estimated to be 2,000 million tonnes (MOWR 2000).

• Coupled with these incongruities and aberrations in land use, the unsound development strategies have led to increasing threats to biodiversity resources by way of illegal encroachment of 0.07 Mha. of forest, cultivation of 4.37 Mha. and diversion of forest for river valley projects (0.52 Mha.), industries and townships (0.14 Mha.), transmission lines and roads (0.06 Mha.) and an additional 1.5 Mha. for miscellaneous purposes (TERI, 1999).
 

According to the Ministry of Environment, Government of India http://envfor.nic.in/cc/diduknow.htm:

 A 1-metre rise in sea level would displace about 7 million people in India

 Fossil fuel burning has contributed to most of the greenhouse gas emissions in the past 20 years.

 The decade of the 1990s was the warmest, and 1998 was the warmest year on record, since 1861

 The population of ice-dependent penguin species in the Western Antarctic Peninsula has decreased by 20% over the last 25 years

 Projections for the 21st century indicate that the earth's average temperature will rise by anything between 1.4 and 5.8ºC

According to Climate Change: India’s Perceptions, Positions, Policies and Possibilities, by Parikh, Jyoti K. and Parikh, Kirit (2002), OECD,
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/22/16/1934784.pdf:

• Climate change would result in large-scale emigration from coastal zones due to submergence of coastlines after sea levels have risen. This will create large numbers of environmental refugees especially from low-lying delta regions in poor countries. Furthermore, intrusion of sea-water in the ground water and changes in temperature can reduce agricultural and fishing incomes.

• India would face yield losses in rice and wheat along with fall in the rate of growth of gross domestic product owing to climate change.

• Increased occurrence of extreme events (such as cyclones) due to climate change will mostly affect the poor. One must remember here the cyclone of 1996 that hit Andhra Pradesh.

• The power sector is responsible for the highest direct emissions of CO2 in India (42%), followed by iron and steel, road, railways and air transport, and coal. the power sector is permitted to use natural gas. Coal-based fertiliser plants no longer function and coal use in railways is almost phased out.

• When carbon is traded, what developing countries like India gain would depend on whether the market is competitive, whether futures markets exist, or whether the carbon is bilaterally traded in a project-by-project basis, as is envisaged under CDM.

According to the Climate change, sustainable development and India: Global and national concerns by Jayant Sathaye , PR Shukla  and NH Ravindranath, Current Science, Vol. 90, No. 3, 10 February 2006 http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/feb102006/314.pdf